HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

JOURNAL QUESTIONS

UNIT TWO

Chapter 7:
Bone Tissue



  1. Name the tissues that compose the skeletal system.
  2. List the six functions of the skeleton
  3. Briefly describe bone or osseous tissue. Define mineralization or calcification. List all cell types found in bone.
  4. List and describe the four classifications of bones based on shape and give an example of each. Describe a sesamoid bone. (pg. 234)
  5. Contrast the composition of compact and spongy bone. Define Describe the location of each bone type in a long bone.
  6. Describe these structures of a typical long bone: diaphysis, epiphysis, medullary cavity, marrow, endosteum and articular cartilage.
  7. Describe the periosteum and its three functions. What are perforating (Sharpeys’) fibers?
  8. Distinguish between the epiphyseal plate and the epiphyseal line.
  9. Describe the structure of a flat bone. Define diploe.
  10. Describe four principle types of bone cells: osteogenic, osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts.
  11. Describe the organic and inorganic parts of the bone matrix and why each is important.
  12. Describe the microscopic features of compact bone: osteon (Haversian) system, concentric lamellae, central canal and perforating canal, lacuna and canaliculi.
  13. Describe trabeculae. Describe spongy bone texture.
  14. Define bone marrow. Distinguish between red and yellow marrow. How does red marrow location differ in children and adults?
  15. Define ossification. Distinguish between the two ways bone is formed during prenatal development; intramembranous and endochondral ossification. List three specific bones formed from each type of ossification.
  16. Describe the location and tissue composition of the epiphyseal plate. Describe briefly how the epiphyseal plate is related to long bone growth. Briefly describe the five zones of the metaphysis. What does the epiphyseal line represent?
  17. Define appositional growth and how it affects the bone.
  18. Describe the two processes and cell types involved in bone remodeling. What is Wolff’s Law? How does stress affect bone remodeling?
  19. In addition to bone structure, how else are calcium and phosphate importanto the body? What role does bone play in maintaining normal levels of blood calcium? Why is it important to regulate blood calcium within a narrow range?
  20. Describe the process of mineral deposition (mineralization) and its result. Describe the process of mineral resorption and its result.
  21. Define Calcitriol. Briefly list its three actions and how this hormone affects blood calcium levels.
  22. Using Figure 7.16, describe how homeostasis of calcium blood levels is maintained by the hormones calcitonin and parathyroid hormone. List how each hormone produces their effects.
  23. Describe how the male and female sex hormones affect bone growth and development
  24. Briefly describe the causes, risk factors, pathological effects, treatment and prevention of osteoporosis.


Chapter9:
Joints of the Skeletal System



  1. Define articulation or joint. How are joints named? What is their function? Give an example.
  2. How are joints classified? What are the four major categories of joints?
  3. Describe synotosis (bony joint) and give its locations.
  4. Define fibrous or synarthosis joint. Describe the three types of fibrous joints; sutures, gomphosis and syndesmosis and give examples of each.
  5. Describe the two types of cartilaginous joints or amphiarthrosis and give examples of each and the movement allowed at each.
  6. What type of joint is most common in our body and what movements does it allow? vDescribe the anatomy and function of these synovial joint structures: articular cartilage, joint or articular capsule and its two layers, synovial or joint cavity and synovial fluid.
  7. List the functions of synovial fluid.
  8. Describe the structure and function of articular disc (menisci) bursa, tendon sheath, tendons and ligaments.
  9. Define range of motion (ROM). Briefly describe three factors which determine the planes of movement.
  10. Define the synovial joint movements: flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction, pronation, supination, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion, protraction, retraction, inversion, eversion, elevation and depression.
  11. Define axis of rotation. Define the three degrees of freedom that used to classify synovial joints.
  12. Name the six types of synovial joints and describe the structure and movements associated with each. List at least 2 examples for each type of joint.
  13. Compare and contrast the shoulder and hip joint, structurally and functionally.
  14. Briefly explain the importance of the biceps brachii and the rotator cuff to the shoulder joint.
  15. Describe how the two collateral and two cruciate ligaments are vital to the stability of the knee joint.


Chapter 12:
Nervous Tissue



  1. Describe the basic steps the nervous system uses to carry out its coordinating function. Describe sensory receptors and effectors.
  2. Describe the two major anatomical divisions of the nervous system; the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
  3. What are the two functional divisions of the PNS? Describe the overall function of the sensory or afferent division. Describe the function of its two subdivisions: somatic sensory and visceral sensory.
  4. Describe the overall function of the motor or efferent division. Describe the two divisions of the motor division.
  5. Describe the overall function of a neuron and its three fundamental physiological properties.
  6. Describe the typical structures of a neuron; cell body (perikaryon or soma) Nissl bodies and neurofibrils. Define ganglion.
  7. Name the two processes of a neuron. Describe dendrites and their function.
  8. Describe axons and their main functions. Describe the axon hillock, axon collateral, terminal arborization (axon terminals) synaptic knobs (bulbs or terminal button)) and synaptic cleft (synaptic gap).
  9. Describe the three structural classifications of neurons; multipolar, unipolar and bipolar and where each one is located.
  10. Define neurolglia or glial cells. Give their general function and abundance in the nervous system.
  11. Describe the function and appearance of the four types of neuroglia in the CNS; astrocytes, ependymal, oligodendrocytes and microglia.
  12. Describe the functions of the two types of neuroglia in the PNS; Schwann cells and satellite cells. vDescribe the myelin sheath, its composition, importance and development. Define neurilemma and Nodes of Ranvier. vDescribe the two factors that affect the speed of nerve signals (impulses).
  13. Briefly describe the process and factors necessary for nerve fiber regeneration in the PNS and compare it to regeneration in the CNS.
  14. Define the two cellular mechanisms, electrical potential and current, needed for neural communication. Define polarized.
  15. What produces the Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)? Define ‘resting” neuron. Why is the RMP a negative number?
  16. Describe the distribution of charges that results in the RMP. What three factors combine to give the RMP?
  17. Compare the concentration of K+ in the ICF and ECF. In which direction will it move by its concentration gradient?
  18. Compare the concentration of Na+ in the ICF and ECF. In which direction will it move by its concentration gradient?
  19. Contrast the membrane permeability to K+ and Na+. Which ion’s movement most affects the RMP?
  20. Describe the action and importance of the Na+/K+ pump.
  21. Describe the ways stimulation affects a neuron. Name some of these stimulations.
  22. List four characteristics of a local potential.
  23. Describe how a membrane becomes depolarized and hyperpolarized. Which change is excitatory and which is inhibitory and explain why?
  24. Describe the general features of an action potential. (AP)
  25. Use an outline format to describe the 7 steps in forming an action potential.
  26. List 4 ways an action potential is different from a local potential.
  27. Define refractory period. Contrast absolute and relative refractory periods.
  28. Distinguish action potential from a nerve signal. (impulse)
  29. Compare signal conduction in an un-myelinated and myelinated nerve fiber. Define saltatory conduction.
  30. Define synapse. Describe the presynaptic neuron, postsynaptic neuron and synaptic cleft (gap).
  31. Define chemical synapse and neurotransmitter. List the two diverse actions of neurotransmitters and why each action occurs.
  32. Outline the 5 steps in an excitatory cholinergic synapse.
  33. Briefly explain how GABA and glycine act as an inhibitory neurotransmitters.
  34. Describe three ways to stop synaptic transmission.
  35. Briefly describe the function of a neuromodulator. Give two examples of neuromodulators and each one’s action.
  36. Describe the two types of postsynaptic potentials; excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP).
  37. Define summation. Contrast temporal and spatial summation at a synapse.